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Throughout Europe, most water obstacles run North-South, directly contrasting with the East-West direction of advance of the belligerents in WW2. Soviet estimates revealed that in the European theater, a force could expect to encounter a water obstacle 75-100 yards wide (3-4 hexes) every 25-45 miles, 200 yards wide (8 hexes) every 100 miles and 300+ yards wide (12+ hexes) every 200 miles.

During WW2, military theorists placed great emphasis on high advance rates by armor heavy columns in the offense. From the Steppes of Russia to the fields of France, rivers provided a formidable obstacle to this fast movement, and required extensive proper planning to overcome. Airborne and Glider forces trained to seize crossing points; in fact most airborne operations in WW2 were conducted to seize key bridges. The hard challenge came in crossing rivers where no bridge existed or where the bridge had already been blown. Even harder still was an opposed crossing of a river.

In response to these challenges, armies devoted tremendous resources to improving their crossing capabilities. Large stocks of specialized bridging and assault equipment were procured. Engineer units trained to secure far riverbanks after rowing across the water. Special tank units were equipped with Snorkels. Bridging units practiced reducing riverbanks and emplacing pontoon bridges. Bailey Bridges, ‘the envy of the modern world’, were developed to quickly provide a semi permanent structure to facilitate movement of the largest tanks and rail traffic.

The fun part about river crossing operations from an SP point is, no matter how many units are stacked up behind your lead assault crossing force, or if an entire Corps plans to use this crossing site for future operations, the initial assault will be conducted by a relatively small, manageable force trying to take the crossing site. Usually no bigger than a battalion plus a few assets.

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Organization and Force Preparation

While heavy amphibious assets are split evenly throughout the Regiments, Divisions and Corps, the main effort unit, i.e., the first river crossing battalion, was ‘plussed up’ with the lions share of assault/crossing assets. For example, a pre-44 German Armored Division had an Armored Engineer Battalion with one (two in SS Divisions) ‘bridge column’ of 6 crossing pieces (barges in SP) and the capability to build a 130 yard steel bridge once the site was secured. This would all go to the lead crossing battalion along with additional Corps support if the obstacle was larger. The Engineer Company at regimental level usually had enough pontoon rafts or small boats to carry a platoon. Since there are 3 regiments in most divisions, this equates to enough rafts to carry an infantry or engineer company. Basically, the more time to prepare, the more river assault assets will become available.

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Tactical River Crossings

There are two basic types of river crossings, the assault crossing from the march and the prepared river crossing. Crossing from the march is the preferred and most expected method.

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Assault River Crossings

The assault crossing is conducted with forces moving toward the river in a dispersed, normal march formation across a wide frontage. Long Range Recon patrols, Brandenbergers, airborne troops or friendly partisans may help seize or over-watch favorable crossing sites. All measures are taken to make crossing as swift as possible. Organize your units into an Infantry/Armor Company Team for an Advanced Guard; an Engineer Company assault crossing force; an Infantry/Armor Company Team exploitation force, and an Infantry/Armor Company Team reserve.

The Advanced Guard will come forward and secure the near side of the river, exploiting the success of any recon/airborne forces. The Advanced Guard will also direct fires across the river into enemy defenses, and plot indirect fire support on those units it cannot neutralize or destroy. The Engineer Company will then come forward and cross the river on a frontage of 200-250 meters (8-10 hexes), securing the far side. The Engineer crossing will be covered by smoke and indirect fires. The assault force will expand the bridgehead, until no enemy direct fire weapons can be brought to bear on the crossing site. Once this bridgehead is established, the exploitation forces will cross by ferry, barge, snorkel or fording, and quickly fan out, seizing critical terrain beyond the river. Total time to conduct a battalion size assault from the march is around 45 minutes (15-25 turns). Later, tactical bridges are emplaced for follow on forces.

Efficient traffic control is essential. If tank units are permitted to get backed up and mass, they become a very lucrative target for enemy aviation and artillery. Units crossing a river are especially vulnerable to enemy airstrikes. I must emphasize the need for tactical air defense at the crossing site; much of the division’s air defense assets must come forward and be placed far out along enemy air approach routes. Also, Soviet forces stressed that friendly air support during a river crossing is more critical than during other types of operations. Expect the lions share of artillery and air support during this mission as well.

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Prepared River Crossings

Prepared crossings against an enemy opposed site require careful planning and massive suppression of enemy forces. This is used as a last resort when an assault crossing from the march fails. Under cover of darkness, engineer and infantry units will cross to the far bank, secure the far side, and begin to clear out enemy resistance. Only after the far side is secure, will the armor forces start to cross. This kind of assault is extremely hard to conduct; witness the Russian or US disasters at the Oder, Wistula, Volturno, Rapido, Seille and Moselle to name a few.

All a defender needs to do is keep eyes on the crossing site, and any indirect fire he can bring to bear will pound the units in the river.

Until you set the conditions for success, i.e. pound the enemy and break his will to fight, river crossings are one of the trickiest and hardest of military operations to execute well.

Sources:

FM 100-2-2 The Soviet Army, US Army, 1984
TM-E 30-451 The German Armed Forces, US Army, 1945
The Lorraine Campaign, US CHM, 1954
US Army Infantry School CATD training supplements, US Army, 1995

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